In Hindu philosophy, moksha is considered one of the four puruṣārthas (goals or aims of human life), which are essential in guiding individuals toward a balanced and fulfilling existence. The term puruṣārtha is derived from two Sanskrit words: puruṣa (meaning "person" or "individual") and ārtha (meaning "purpose" or "goal"). Together, puruṣārtha refers to the four key objectives that human beings should strive for in life: dharma (righteousness), artha (prosperity), kāma (pleasure), and moksha (liberation).
Of these four, moksha holds a unique and paramount position as the ultimate goal. It is seen as the liberation from the cycles of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra), and the cessation of suffering (dukkha) that arises from attachment, desire, and ignorance. The idea of moksha as puruṣārtha integrates both the spiritual and practical aspects of life, emphasizing that while the pursuit of dharma, artha, and kāma are important for leading a meaningful and ethical life, they must eventually culminate in the liberation of the soul from the material world.
In the context of the Yoga National Eligibility Test (NET) Junior Research Fellowship (JRF), the concept of moksha is deeply relevant in understanding the philosophical foundation of yoga as well as its ultimate goal, which can be intertwined with both the practical and theoretical aspects of the discipline. Moksha, in yogic philosophy, represents liberation or freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and is considered the highest spiritual goal. It can be understood through the lens of various yoga traditions, including Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Jnana Yoga, each contributing to a holistic approach to achieving liberation.
Moksha, derived from the Sanskrit root “muc,” meaning to free, represents the ultimate liberation or release in Indian philosophical traditions. It is the state of eternal freedom, transcending the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). The concept of Moksha occupies a central place in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, albeit with variations in interpretation. While it signifies liberation from the cycle of karma in Hinduism, it is associated with Nirvana in Buddhism and Kevala Jnana in Jainism. The pursuit of Moksha is seen as the pinnacle of spiritual achievement and the ultimate purpose of human life.
In its simplest essence, Moksha is liberation from the bondage of worldly existence. It signifies a state of pure consciousness, where one’s true self (Atman) merges with the supreme reality (Brahman) or achieves self-realization. Moksha is not merely a negative condition—the cessation of suffering—but also a profoundly positive state of bliss, peace, and freedom. In Hindu philosophy, Moksha is the fourth and final Purushartha (goal of human life), following Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), and Kama (desire). While the first three pertain to worldly existence, Moksha transcends these by focusing on the eternal and the spiritual.
Moksha is a Sanskrit term that means "liberation" or "release." It refers to the ultimate freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and the transcendence of all worldly attachments, desires, and suffering. Moksha represents the realization of one's true self (atman) and its unity with the universal consciousness or supreme reality (Brahman). Achieving Moksha is considered the highest spiritual goal in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, marking a state of eternal peace, bliss, and enlightenment.
Shankaracharya described Moksha as the realization of the non-duality of the individual soul (atman) and the supreme reality (Brahman). According to him, ignorance (avidya) creates the illusion of separation, and Moksha is attained through self-knowledge (jnana) and the removal of ignorance.
Ramanuja emphasized that Moksha is achieved through devotion (bhakti) to the supreme deity, Vishnu. In his view, the soul retains its individuality even in liberation, existing in a state of eternal bliss and union with the divine.
Madhva proposed that Moksha is the soul's eternal service to God, particularly Vishnu, in a separate but blissful state. Liberation, for him, is based on the grace of God and devotion.
In Jainism, Moksha is liberation from the karmic bondage that ties the soul to the cycle of birth and rebirth. Mahavira taught that Moksha is attained through ethical living, meditation, and strict adherence to the Five Great Vows: non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacharya), and non-possession (aparigraha).
A prominent Jain philosopher, Kundakunda explained that Moksha involves the soul shedding all karmic particles and realizing its pure, eternal, and blissful nature.
While Buddhism does not use the term Moksha as prominently as Hinduism or Jainism, it parallels Moksha with Nirvana. Buddha described Nirvana as the cessation of suffering (dukkha) and the end of samsara. This state is achieved by following the Noble Eightfold Path and understanding the Four Noble Truths.
Nagarjuna emphasized that liberation involves understanding the emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena and transcending dualistic notions. Nirvana is not a separate state but the ultimate realization of the interdependent nature of existence.
Vivekananda described Moksha as the realization of the divinity inherent in every being. He emphasized that liberation is not confined to any single path but can be achieved through knowledge, devotion, meditation, or selfless service.
Aurobindo redefined Moksha as not merely an escape from the world but a transformation of life on Earth. He advocated for a spiritual evolution where the divine consciousness integrates into the material world.
The philosopher-statesman described Moksha as spiritual freedom that involves self-realization and moral perfection. It is a state of harmony with the universe, achieved through introspection and ethical living.
Moksha, often regarded as liberation or spiritual freedom, is conceptualized in Hindu philosophy as a state of ultimate perfection. According to Daniel Ingalls, moksha transcends the realm of dharma (righteous living) and is seen as the natural culmination of the human journey. This state is achievable through the same self-discipline and practices that nurture dharma. However, while dharma is a conscious effort toward ethical living, moksha represents a state where self-discipline becomes so ingrained that it operates unconsciously, as a second nature. Thus, dharma is often viewed as a stepping stone toward the ultimate goal of moksha.
The Samkhya school of Hinduism emphasizes the importance of magnifying one’s sattvam (purity, harmony, and balance) as a pathway to moksha. This involves cultivating an instinctive nature that aligns with sattvic qualities through rigorous self-discipline and self-training. For these schools, dharma and moksha are seen as interconnected points along a single journey of life. Dharma provides the foundation of moral discipline, while moksha represents the perfection of that discipline in the form of liberation.
The process of self-training and developing sattvam is critical because it bridges the individual’s worldly responsibilities with their transcendental aspirations. However, over time, this perspective on the relationship between dharma and moksha has been critically examined and challenged.
In the 2nd century, Nagarjuna, a prominent philosopher of Mahayana Buddhism, questioned the intellectual link between dharma and moksha. He argued that dharma, which involves engagement with worldly thought and ethical action, and moksha, characterized as an unworldly state of bliss and freedom, are fundamentally distinct. Nagarjuna posed the critical question: How can worldly thought-processes lead to an unworldly understanding?
This challenge underscores the stark differences between the conditioned world we inhabit and the unconditioned freedom implied by moksha. Nagarjuna’s critique highlights the tension between living ethically within the confines of the material world and transcending it altogether.
The response to Nagarjuna’s challenge, as interpreted by modern scholars like Karl Potter, lies in understanding the contextual nature of dharma and moksha. While dharma operates within the framework of worldly existence, moksha transcends it. The apparent contradiction can be reconciled by recognizing that broader principles of understanding can emerge from finite, worldly thought processes. Dharma provides the structure and discipline necessary to cultivate the inner transformation that eventually leads to moksha.
Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher and proponent of Advaita Vedanta, offered a profound analysis of moksha (liberation) by juxtaposing it with the material world. Unlike Nagarjuna, who questioned the compatibility of worldly thought with transcendental freedom, Shankara delved deeper into the characteristics of both realms.
According to Shankara, the material world is inherently action-oriented, governed by vyavahara (practical life and plurality). This world operates through an interconnected web of cause and effect, where input is continuously transformed into output. Change, plurality, and action are intrinsic to the material existence. In contrast, moksha represents a state of ultimate bliss and perfection, free from action, change, and plurality. It is a state of pure thought and consciousness, where the distractions of the material world cease to exist.
Shankara posed a critical question: How can the action-oriented techniques used to attain worldly goals such as kama (desires), artha (wealth), and dharma (righteousness) suffice to achieve the final goal of moksha? His inquiry emphasizes the fundamental difference between the transient nature of worldly pursuits and the permanence of moksha.
Interestingly, Shankara's critique has been compared to the debates of Plotinus, the Neoplatonic philosopher, against the Gnostics. Plotinus argued that the Gnostics replaced human-centered virtues with God-centered ones in their pursuit of salvation. Shankara, on the other hand, challenged the notion that anthropocentric virtues like dharma could be exchanged for the blissful state of moksha. He asserted that anthropocentric virtues themselves were sufficient for spiritual progress, suggesting that the discipline cultivated through dharma could guide one toward liberation.
In contrast to Shankara’s Advaitic view, Vaishnavism, a devotional school of Hinduism, presented an entirely different perspective on moksha. This school emphasized a path of love, devotion, and constant remembrance of God as the means to attain liberation.
Vaishnavas argued that dharma and moksha are not distinct or sequential goals but can be pursued simultaneously. They proposed that the loving presence of God should be so deeply ingrained in one’s consciousness that it becomes inseparable from everyday life. Through constant adoration of God, chanting His name, and anointing His image or idol, one could achieve both righteous living (dharma) and liberation (moksha) concurrently.
Vaishnavas focused on divine virtues, such as love, compassion, and surrender, rather than the human-centered virtues emphasized in other schools of thought. For them, moksha was not an isolated goal but an extension of their loving relationship with God. Daniel Ingalls likened the Vaishnava perspective on moksha to the Christian concept of salvation, where devotion and divine grace hold paramount importance.
This emphasis on bhakti (devotion) made Vaishnavism one of the most influential schools in shaping the perception of Hinduism during the colonial era. Scholars such as Thibaut and Max Müller, in their early interpretations of Hindu philosophy, highlighted Vaishnavism’s views on dharma, karma, and moksha as central to understanding the religion.
Moksha, as a state of perfection, represents the culmination of a journey that begins with dharma. While dharma involves active engagement with ethical living, moksha is the transcendence of this engagement into a state of effortless perfection and liberation. The philosophical debates surrounding the relationship between dharma and moksha, including Nagarjuna’s critiques, deepen our understanding of the nuanced pathways to spiritual freedom. Ultimately, moksha is a harmonious integration of disciplined living and transcendental realization, a state where worldly and unworldly dimensions converge in perfect balance.
Both Adi Shankara and the Vaishnavas presented compelling challenges to the concept of moksha, offering nuanced perspectives that continue to enrich Hindu philosophy. Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta emphasized the radical transcendence of moksha as a state beyond action, change, and plurality, questioning the adequacy of action-oriented methods in achieving liberation. Meanwhile, the Vaishnavas proposed a devotional approach, integrating dharma and moksha through the constant remembrance and love of God.
Together, these perspectives illustrate the diversity within Hindu thought, showcasing a rich tapestry of ideas about the ultimate goal of life and the pathways to spiritual freedom. Whether through rigorous self-discipline or heartfelt devotion, the pursuit of moksha remains a central theme, inviting profound reflection and individual interpretation.
The concept of moksha emerged much later in ancient Indian philosophy compared to the concept of dharma. The proto-concept, found in early Sanskrit verses and the initial Upanishads, is "mucyate," which translates to "freed" or "released." It is only in the middle and later Upanishads, such as the Svetasvatara and Maitri, that the term moksha gains prominence, evolving into a central and profound philosophical ideal.
The Katha Upanishad—an Upanishadic scripture from the middle period, dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE—presents one of the earliest and most insightful discussions on saṃsāra (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth) and moksha (liberation). In Book I, Section III, the legend of Nachiketa is recounted. Nachiketa, a curious and spiritually inclined boy, confronts Yama, the lord of death, seeking answers about the root causes of saṃsāra and the path to liberation. Nachiketa asks, What causes sorrow and suffering?
Yama elucidates that suffering and the cycle of saṃsāra arise from living an impure and unreflective life—a life devoid of self-awareness, intelligence, and moral discipline. A mind and senses disconnected from one's ātman (soul or true self) lead to ignorance and bondage. Liberation, Yama explains, is attainable through a life led with inner purity, clarity of thought, and the guidance of buddhi (intelligence and reason). Realization of the Supreme Self (purusha), which resides in all beings, is the key to moksha. The Katha Upanishad asserts that knowledge liberates, and this wisdom is the ultimate freedom. It also highlights the critical role of yoga in achieving personal liberation, emphasizing its practice as a pathway to self-realization and moksha.
The Svetasvatara Upanishad, written after the Katha Upanishad, explores further metaphysical questions: Why is man born? What is the primal cause of the universe? What leads to joy and sorrow in life? This text meticulously examines the prevailing theories of its time about saṃsāra and liberation. The Svetasvatara posits that bondage arises from ignorance (avidya), illusion (maya), or delusion (moha). Deliverance, on the other hand, comes through knowledge (jnana) and the realization of the Supreme Being.
This Upanishad presents a profound vision of the Supreme Being as both immanent and transcendent: an eternal law, the essence of all things, inseparable from nature, and yet beyond it. The text metaphorically likens the realization of the Supreme Being to discovering butter hidden within milk—an intrinsic yet veiled presence. Liberation, it argues, is achieved through self-discipline, self-knowledge, and the recognition that the Supreme Being is the Universal Spirit dwelling within all beings.
The Svetasvatara concludes that such realization leads to freedom from transmigration—the endless cycle of birth and rebirth—and marks the attainment of moksha, the ultimate goal. It affirms that liberation is not merely an escape from the physical world but a profound transformation in understanding one's unity with the cosmic principle. This philosophical journey from ignorance to enlightenment reflects the timeless quest of human existence as articulated in the Upanishads.
The terms moksha, nirvana (or nibbana), and kaivalya are often used interchangeably to describe a state of liberation from sorrow and suffering. However, their interpretations and philosophical underpinnings vary significantly across different religious traditions. Each term carries nuanced meanings that align with the foundational doctrines of the respective spiritual paths.
Moksha, a concept central to Hinduism, denotes liberation achieved through the realization of the Self (Atman) and the ultimate union with Brahman, the universal consciousness. It represents an enlightened state where one transcends all material desires, dualities, and the illusion of separation, recognizing the oneness of existence. Moksha emphasizes the acceptance of Self, knowledge that liberates, and an awareness of the universe as an extension of one's true essence.
In contrast, nirvana, a pivotal concept in Buddhism, signifies the cessation of suffering and the extinguishment of desires and attachments. Unlike moksha, which is rooted in the acknowledgment of a universal Self, nirvana is premised on the doctrine of anatta (non-self), which posits that no permanent, unchanging self exists. Nirvana involves the realization that all phenomena are impermanent and devoid of intrinsic selfhood. It is characterized by a state of emptiness (shunyata) and the cessation of consciousness as we understand it.
Philosophically, nirvana negates the existence of a Self, while moksha affirms it. The two states, though seemingly aligned in their goal of liberation, arise from entirely different metaphysical frameworks. Nirvana is described as a "blowing out" or "extinction" of the fires of desire, hatred, and ignorance, whereas moksha is depicted as an eternal oneness with the divine essence of Brahman.
Kaivalya, a concept found in certain schools of Hinduism, particularly the Yoga school, bears similarities to moksha but also has distinct attributes. It represents a state of absolute aloneness and detachment, achieved through the dissolution of avidya (ignorance) and the disentanglement from the mind and sensory apparatus. Kaivalya emphasizes the attainment of pure knowledge (jnana) and isolation from the material and cognitive entanglements of existence.
For example, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali describe kaivalya as the outcome of spiritual discipline and
While moksha is commonly associated with the oneness with Brahman, kaivalya focuses on the individual's ultimate liberation as a distinct and pure self.
Some scholars, such as Jayatilleke, have debated the relationships and differences between these concepts. A few assert that nirvana in Buddhism aligns with the concept of Brahman in Hinduism. However, this view is contentious. Buddhism fundamentally rejects the metaphysical notions of Brahman and Atman, viewing them as impediments to the understanding of reality.
Instead, Buddhism upholds the realization of anatta (non-self) as essential to achieving nirvana, emphasizing that liberation comes from recognizing the emptiness of all phenomena. Conversely, Hinduism considers the realization of atman (soul) as integral to attaining moksha, highlighting a union with the divine principle of Brahman.
Both the Sāmkhya and Yoga schools of thought are considered mokshaśāstras—systems focused on achieving liberation and ultimate release, according to scholar Knut Jacobsen. While Sāmkhya primarily serves as a philosophical framework interpreting the nature of existence, Yoga encompasses both a philosophy and a practical methodology for attaining liberation (moksha). Yoga gained significant acceptance in ancient India, embedding its principles and practices into numerous Hindu traditions, even those distinct from Sāmkhya. Its eight limbs (Ashtanga Yoga) are often interpreted as a structured pathway to liberation.
In Hinduism, yoga or mārga (meaning "way" or "path") is traditionally classified into four primary spiritual approaches, each offering a unique route to moksha:
Each of these mārgas is associated with different schools of thought and practices within Hinduism, which define and adapt their methodologies to achieve moksha. For instance, the Advaita Vedanta school emphasizes Jñāna Yoga, focusing on self-realization and the knowledge of unity with Brahman. However, not all forms of moksha align with every mārga. For example, the Ekasarana dharma tradition rejects the sayujya mukti (absorption into God), asserting that such union negates the personal bliss derived from bhakti (devotion). Saints like Madhavadeva express admiration for devotees who prioritize devotion over liberation itself.
In Sāmkhya philosophy, liberation is referred to as kaivalya, signifying the realization of purusa (pure consciousness) as distinct from prakrti (material nature). This separation underscores the independence of consciousness from the body and mind. Sāmkhya, like many other Hindu traditions, emphasizes knowledge (vidyā or jñāna) as a critical element for achieving moksha.
The Yoga school builds on the principles of Sāmkhya, positioning itself as a means to overcome avidyā (ignorance), which it identifies as the root cause of human suffering. Avidyā represents a misunderstanding of oneself and the universe. Yoga aims to eradicate this ignorance by restraining the fluctuations of the mind (cittavrtti nirodhah) and cultivating deeper, purer awareness (asamprājñāta samādhi).
Yoga advocates two essential practices for liberation:
Over time, these practices lead to samādhi, a profound state of concentration and awareness. Through samādhi, the practitioner experiences kaivalya, a state characterized by release, ultimate bliss, and pure consciousness.
Both Sāmkhya and Yoga emphasize the acquisition of true knowledge as a prerequisite for liberation. Yoga serves as the practical complement to Sāmkhya's theoretical insights, offering tools to transcend ignorance and reach the state of kaivalya. In essence, Yoga's progression—from practice (abhyāsa) and detachment (vairāgya) to samādhi—marks a systematic journey toward self-realization and ultimate freedom.
This synthesis reflects the profound interplay between philosophical inquiry and disciplined practice in the pursuit of moksha, a defining feature of these ancient Indian systems of thought.
The pursuit of Moksha is a deeply personal and spiritual journey, and Indian traditions have outlined multiple paths to achieve it. These paths acknowledge the diversity of human temperaments and life circumstances.
Jnana Yoga emphasizes self-inquiry and the realization of the true nature of the self. According to Advaita Vedanta, one of the most influential schools of Hindu philosophy, ignorance (avidya) of our true self as Brahman is the root cause of bondage. Through discrimination (viveka), renunciation (vairagya), and meditation, the seeker dissolves this ignorance and experiences oneness with the absolute reality.
Bhakti Yoga entails complete devotion to a personal deity, such as Krishna, Shiva, or Vishnu. By surrendering oneself to the divine and cultivating love and devotion, one transcends the ego and attains union with the supreme being. Bhakti is accessible to all, irrespective of caste, gender, or intellectual prowess, and is often expressed through rituals, prayers, and singing hymns.
Karma Yoga advocates performing selfless actions without attachment to their fruits. By dedicating every action to the divine, the seeker purifies their mind and heart. This detachment from outcomes leads to inner freedom and ultimately to Moksha. This path, emphasized in the Bhagavad Gita, is particularly suited for those engaged in worldly responsibilities.
Raja Yoga, as elaborated in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, focuses on controlling the mind through meditation and ethical discipline. The eight limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) guide the practitioner through moral conduct (Yama and Niyama), physical postures (Asanas), breath control (Pranayama), and meditative absorption (Samadhi). Samadhi is the ultimate state where the practitioner transcends the mind and realizes their true nature.
Karma, the law of cause and effect, binds individuals to the cycle of samsara. Every thought, word, and deed generates karma, which determines the circumstances of future births. Moksha is attained when one transcends karma through self-realization or divine grace, breaking free from this cycle. In Hinduism, karma can be mitigated by righteous actions, spiritual practices, and surrender to the divine. Jainism emphasizes asceticism and non-violence (ahimsa) to eliminate karma, while Buddhism focuses on mindfulness and detachment.
Hinduism offers diverse interpretations of Moksha. In Advaita Vedanta, Moksha is the realization that the individual self (Atman) is identical to Brahman. In contrast, the Dvaita (dualistic) tradition views Moksha as eternal union with the divine while maintaining individuality. The Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) school teaches that the self is distinct yet inseparable from Brahman, achieving liberation through divine grace.
In Buddhism, the term "moksha" is less commonly used; however, an equivalent concept is vimutti, meaning "release." The suttas describe two types of release:
Ceto-vimutti is associated with the practice of dhyana (meditative absorption), while panna-vimutti arises from the cultivation of wisdom and insight. Gombrich suggests that this distinction might be a later development, reflecting a doctrinal shift that redefined dhyana as insufficient for attaining final liberation.
The experience of release culminates in Nirvana (Pali: Nibbana), which literally means "blowing out," "quenching," or "becoming extinguished." It refers to the cessation of the fires of passion and self-view, marking a state of complete liberation. Nirvana is described as a timeless state where becoming ceases, ending the cycle of suffering (Dukkha) and rebirth in the six realms of Saṃsāra.
In Jainism, moksha and nirvana are considered synonymous. The term Kevalya is often used in Jain texts to describe the liberated state, with the liberated soul referred to as a Kevalin. As in other Indian religions, moksha represents the ultimate spiritual goal, signifying release from all accumulated karma.
Jainism, a Sramanic, non-theistic philosophy, posits the existence of a permanent soul, often called jiva. This soul undergoes transmigration, passing from one being to another upon death. The state of moksha is achieved when the soul (or atman) is freed from the cycles of death and rebirth (saṃsāra), reaches its highest state of omniscience, and remains in this state eternally as a siddha. According to Paul Dundas, this state transcends ethical perfection, as the siddha can perform actions such as teaching without accumulating karma that could result in rebirth.
Jainism also acknowledges the existence of Abhavya souls—those incapable of attaining liberation. This state is believed to occur after an act of extreme evil, though Jain texts have also applied this condition to adherents of the ancient Ājīvika tradition. In Jain philosophy, human beings, particularly males, are considered closest to the possibility of moksha due to their potential for ascetic practices. The question of whether women can attain moksha has been debated. In the Digambara tradition, it is believed that women must first live an ethical life and accrue enough karmic merit to be reborn as men, as only males are thought to achieve spiritual liberation. However, the Śvētāmbara tradition holds that women, like men, can attain moksha.
According to Jain teachings, purification of the soul and attainment of moksha can be realized through the path of the Three Jewels:
Some Jain texts also include Samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, highlighting ascetic practices as essential for liberation. Collectively, these four jewels form the moksha marg (path to liberation). Upon liberation, the pure soul, or Siddha, ascends to the summit of the universe (Siddhashila) where it resides in eternal bliss.
Moksha is an ineffable state, beyond the grasp of ordinary language and concepts. It is described as:
The modern relevance of moksha, though deeply rooted in ancient spiritual traditions, continues to resonate in contemporary society, particularly in the realms of personal development, mental well-being, and philosophical inquiry. As the ultimate goal of liberation from the cycles of suffering and rebirth, moksha offers a transformative perspective on life, encouraging individuals to pursue inner peace, self-realization, and freedom from attachments. In the modern context, the concept of moksha can be seen as:
Answer: c) Moksha
Answer: d) Karma Yoga
Answer: c) Liberation from the cycle of birth and death
Answer: d) Raja Yoga
Answer: a) Mental distractions
(Try to answer these questions after reading entire SKM Yoga notes for Yoga NET JRF)
(Try to write answers for these essays as well)
Answer: False
Answer: True
Answer: True
Answer: True
Answer: False
